Data and Research Archives

Research Roundup: Postsecondary Enrollment, CTE Teacher PD, CTE Policy and Industry-based Credentials

Latest Postsecondary Enrollment Data: The National Student Clearinghouse Research Center recently released spring 2025 postsecondary enrollment data. Major takeaways include:

Total postsecondary enrollment grew by 3.2% compared to spring 2024.
Growth occurred at all institutional levels, with community colleges seeing the greatest increase in enrollment (+5.4%) for both men and women.
Undergraduate certificate enrollment grew by 4.8% and is now 20% higher compared to 2020. Community colleges accounted for two-thirds of this growth.
Public two-year schools that strongly focus on CTE program areas saw their third consecutive year of significant growth (+11.7%). Compared to 2020, enrollment has increased by 19.4%.
Among two-year colleges, programs that saw significant growth include construction trades (+15%), health professions (+11.7%) and precision production (+8.9%).
Most racial/ethnic groups saw enrollment growth, led by Black students with a 10.3% increase in enrollment. White students experienced their first enrollment increase since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Assessing the Professional Development Needs of Traditionally and Alternatively Certified CTE Teachers in Virginia: An article by Natalie Ferand, Bradley Bowen and Brett Milliken in the May 2025 issue of the Journal of Research in Technical Careers examines the professional development needs of traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers in Virginia. The researchers surveyed traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers along with teachers traditionally certified in a non-CTE subject area who later received a CTE endorsement.

The researchers found varying professional development needs for each group:

Alternatively certified CTE teachers were most interested in information about CTSOs and adapting instruction for students with special needs.
Traditionally certified CTE teachers were most interested in information about managing stress, student behavior and work/life balance.
Traditionally certified non-CTE teachers who later received a CTE endorsement were most interested in information about motivating students, managing stress and Perkins funding.
Teachers across all three groups need help with managing stress. Managing time, Perkins funding and supporting students with special needs were other professional development needs shared across teachers from different pathways into the profession.

Curricular-credential Decoupling: How Schools Respond to CTE Policy: A report from the Annenberg Institute examines the implementation of CTE and industry-based certification (IBC) policy in Texas, including House Bill 5 (2013) that created five areas of concentration; 2017 legislation that added IBCs to the state’s accountability system; and 2019 policy that incentivized schools for student attainment of IBCs.

Analysis of state longitudinal data reveals that there was a nine-point increase in the percentage of students completing a CTE program from 2017 to 2018, coinciding with the first class to graduate under House Bill 5. From 2018 to 2022, the CTE program completion rate held steady.

In comparison, from 2017-2022, the rate of IBC attainment increased by much more: 25 percentage points. However, over this same period, the rate of students earning IBCs aligned to their CTE program areas decreased by 16 percentage points. Business, manufacturing and construction had the highest CTE-IBC alignment; conversely, health sciences, human services and public service had the lowest CTE-IBC alignment.

The researchers suggest that the financial incentive may have encouraged schools to focus on quick, easy-to-earn IBCs regardless of those credentials’ alignment to CTE program areas.

Cross-cutting Career Clusters: New Resources

A recent blog post published by Getting Smart and Advance CTE provides practitioners with additional information and new resources on the Cross-cutting Clusters from Advance CTE’s recently released update to the Career Clusters® Framework. The Cross-cutting Clusters – Management & Entrepreneurship, Digital Technology and Marketing & Sales – incorporate essential functions and transferable skills that are distinct to their industry sector, but also foundational to success across all industries.

The post shares new graphics, examples and strategies on how to leverage the Cross-cutting Clusters to augment programs. For more information and resources, visit Advance CTE’s website.

Research Roundup: Subbaccalaureate CTE Attainment, ASAP Ohio Evaluation, STARs in the Workforce, Federal Work-study

Subbaccalaureate CTE Attainment for Special Populations: An article by Cameron Sublett and Jay Plasman in the January 2025 edition of the Journal of Postsecondary Student Success examines how certificate and associate degree attainment has changed over time and across special population groups. The researchers used National Center for Education Statistics data to examine credential attainment across several CTE fields of study. They compared data from two groups of students, one who began postsecondary education in 2003 and the other in 2011, each tracked over a six-year time period:

Only 2% of the 2011 cohort were not enrolled in a degree program, compared to 13% of the 2003 cohort.
The 2011 cohort was much more likely to earn certificates and associate degrees in business and marketing and less likely to earn associate degrees in health sciences.
Female students were less likely to earn applied STEM credentials in both cohorts, with the gap increasing from the 2003 to 2011 cohort. Female students were much more likely to earn associate degrees in public service in the 2011 cohort.
Underrepresented minority (URM) students in the 2011 cohort were more likely to earn a public service associate degree than non-minority students in the same cohort and URM students in the 2003 cohort.
Students with disabilities (SWDs) in the 2011 cohort were less likely to earn an associate degree in health sciences and more likely to earn a certificate in the trades than SWDs in the 2003 cohort.

The authors encourage other researchers to conduct similar analyses in local and regional contexts and to consider the impact of more recent innovations in federal and state CTE policy.

Eight-year Findings from the ASAP Ohio Demonstration: A brief from MDRC evaluates the effectiveness of ASAP Ohio programs designed to increase community college graduation rates by offering tutoring, financial assistance and career advising to low-income students. Researchers randomly assigned interested students either into the ASAP program or a control group and compared the two to analyze the impact of the programs on student outcomes.

The researchers found that students in the program earned an associate degree at a much higher rate than control group students: 15 percentage points higher. Women and students with developmental education needs attained a degree at higher rates compared to men and students without special needs, respectively. Notably, program students also went on to attain bachelor’s degrees at a higher rate even though the programs do not provide additional assistance once a student transfers. Program students also earned 14% more in income than control group students by the eighth year of tracking.

Advancing STARs in the American Workforce: A report from Opportunity@Work (O@W) describes the current workforce landscape for individuals skilled through alternative routes (STARs): i.e., skilled workers without a bachelor’s degree. The researchers found that 92% of all employers are interested in hiring people without a degree but skilled through other means, and job postings are increasingly open to STARs now compared to the early 2000s. The report also documents the benefits that participation in the O@W Network has had for STARs and employer partners.

Modernizing Federal Work-study to Support Work-based Learning: A report from the Bipartisan Policy Center discusses how states have utilized the Federal Work-study (FWS) Program to expand work-based learning opportunities for students. The researchers identified several stakeholders challenges:

Underrepresented minorities, as well as community college and low-income students, are less likely to participate in work-based learning programs for a variety of reasons, posing challenges for schools wanting to offer these programs.
FWS programs often have limited staffing and face difficulties in creating and maintaining partnerships with outside employers while also addressing the regulatory uncertainty surrounding the authorized uses of FWS funding.
Demand far exceeds the supply of work-based learning opportunities, and employers cite several factors, such as costs, that prevent them from providing additional opportunities.

The researchers end with strategies to guide policymakers in updating FWS, including providing flexibility in how FWS funding can be used, improving the collection of data on outcomes, and basing the allocation of FWS funding on Pell recipients in an institution.

Research Roundup: Undergraduate Credentials and Outcomes, Transfer Data, Student Aptitude and Interest in Careers

Which Community College Awards Are Likely to Prepare Students for Post-completion Success?: This report and data dashboard from the Community College Research Center examines a variety of community college awards to see which are leading students into high-demand, high-wage careers or to transfer to a bachelor’s degree program.

The researchers found that 56% of community college credentials awarded in 2022-23 were workforce/career-technical credentials, programs aimed at leading students to high-wage careers. Among workforce-focused associate degrees, more than three-quarters are associated with median earnings at or above a living wage two years after completion. Similarly, more than three-quarters of workforce-focused credentials at the certificate level also lead to median earnings at or above a living wage within two years of completion.

Fields such as nursing, computer and information technology, and engineering technology lead to some of the highest-paying careers; however, women, Hispanic and Black workers remain underrepresented in many of these fields.

Undergraduate Credential Data: Recent data released by the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center focuses on undergraduate credential attainment across the nation. Key takeaways include:

Of the 3.2 million learners that earned an undergraduate credential in 2023-24, 58.8% earned a bachelor’s degree, 25.1% earned an associate degree and 16.1% earned an undergraduate certificate.
Although the percentage of learners who received associate degrees declined slightly from the previous academic year (-0.9%), this was the smallest decline yet since 2021-22.
The number of first-time certificate earners has been increasing dramatically, reaching 10-year highs across nearly all types of postsecondary institutions. Compared to the previous academic year, the percentage of first-time certificate earners rose by 12.6%.
Certificate attainment grew for men and women, but more for men (11.6% compared to 9.7%). Women’s rate of associate degree completion continued to decline, while the number of male associate degree earners has stabilized.
Certificate attainment for first-time Black and Hispanic students is outpacing attainment for learners from other racial and ethnic groups.
Fields that saw the most growth in first-time certificate attainment were primarily trades-related, such as precision production (+13.9%) and construction trades (+16.1%).

A National Look at Unfilled Jobs and Unmatched Student Potential: A report from YouScience compares middle and high school students’ aptitudes (where students are likely to thrive) versus their interests in specific Career Clusters.

The researchers found that, for all Clusters, there were significant gaps between students’ aptitude and interest. Some Clusters, such as Education and Training, have a significantly larger proportion of students expressing interest than aptitude while others, such as Health Science, have more students expressing aptitude than interest.

The analysis also examined gaps between students showing aptitude and students showing both aptitude and interest, with findings ranging from a gap of 12% in Architecture and Construction to a gap of 28% in Health Science. This research highlights the need for CTE programs to carefully consider how they introduce and expose students to different career pathways.

The Transfer Playbook: A new guide from the Community College Research Center and the Aspen Institute provides community college and university leaders guidance on improving transfer and bachelor’s degree attainment rates for community college students. The research team compiled data and case studies from transfer partnerships: community colleges and universities with high transfer and degree attainment rates.

The research team identified three effective strategies:

Instituting student-centered reforms, including expanding partnerships to address local workforce needs and investing in staff focused on supporting transfer students and policies. For instance, Northern Virginia Community College and George Mason University admit thousands of students into each college simultaneously while also providing wraparound supports and aligning programs to high-wage careers.
Offering adjustable four-year course sequences, tailored education plans that account for work and family responsibilities, and faculty guidance to support transfer students. Tallahassee State College integrates transfer maps into class registration and degree planning processes.
Providing quality advising experiences on transfer policies and alignment with career goals. The University of North Texas schedules mandatory advising sessions for transfer students to ensure they are aware of school resources and understand their pathways to earning a degree.

Research Roundup: Community and Technical Colleges

In honor of April being Community College Month, we will be highlighting some recent community and technical college research for this and the next Research Roundup.

Three-year Findings from the Viking ROADS Demonstration: A recent study by MDRC examined the Viking Resources for Obtaining Associate Degrees and Success (Viking ROADS) initiative at Westchester Community College in New York, which launched in 2018 and provides full-time students with counseling, career and tutoring services; financial aid; and specialized enrollment options, such as reserved seats in courses.

Students were randomly assigned into either the initiative or a control group. Although much of Viking ROADS took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers found that students engaged had a 12-percentage-point higher graduation rate. Credit attainment also rose – at its peak, students in the initiative were earning 4.3 more credits compared to control group students. Strikingly, among students who earned 60 or more credits (the amount needed to graduate), only 70% of control group students earned their degree compared to 84% of Viking ROADS students.

Community College Student Trends: A research brief from CompTIA analyzed community college student attitudes on the job market, career pathways and related topics. The researchers surveyed 462 community college students nationwide and found the following:

About two-thirds of students report feeling generally positive about the job market after graduation, but 44% of students have economic anxiety.
Nearly half of the students report that their academic programs either require (24%) or recommend (24%) attaining an industry-recognized credential.
In addition, 81% of students believe that industry-recognized credentials help them advance their careers.
For students earning a credential as part of their program, 96% report advancing a step ahead in their career readiness; 46% said they advanced multiple steps ahead.
The majority of students ranked many digital skills as important across all careers, such as digital fluency (82%), data and analytics (79%), and IT/cloud/cybersecurity (67%), while 70% of students are working on improving their AI career readiness.

Promoting Motivation and Learning in Online Courses: A report from the Postsecondary Teaching with Technology Collaborative and the Community College Research Center evaluated student engagement and self-directed learning (SDL) skills in online STEM courses. Students from nine broad-access institutions, including seven community colleges, were interviewed about their experiences.

The researchers categorized their findings into four categories:

Peer and faculty interactions motivate students, but these interactions in online learning can be scarce and lead to isolation. Specific interactions that built confidence in students include listening to questions on course content from peers and attending optional synchronous sessions held by faculty.
Students want more help as they develop their applied learning skills (such as setting goals and taking notes). A few students mentioned that direct guidance from their professors – such as weekly emails on upcoming deadlines/strategies to use – were extremely helpful.
Students face barriers when seeking help in online courses, including fears of being perceived as unprepared. Students with engaging professors felt more comfortable asking for help.
Many students develop their SDL skills from previous experiences and perseverance, citing their families and communities as inspiration for them to complete college.

The researchers end with recommendations to faculty, such as prioritizing interactions with and between students and providing additional assistance in navigating course resources.

Governors Reshaping Workforce Development: A report from the Project on Workforce and the National Governors Association examined how governors are utilizing WIOA and similar policies to implement workforce development strategies. The researchers conducted interviews and surveys with workforce development policymakers and workforce administrators across 34 states.

The researchers noted several overall findings:

Workforce governance structures have been facing major shifts in many states, with governors focusing more on workforce policy within their offices and states merging or realigning roles in state workforce agencies. For instance, in 2018, Alabama created the Governor’s Office of Education and Workforce Transformation.
WIOA planning by states is often stakeholder driven, such as Maine’s Economic Development Strategy, which provides a framework for collaboration between public and private entities. However, some states find such planning too burdensome.
Owing to limitations in WIOA funding streams, states are getting creative in finding funding for workforce development. Governor’s WIOA Reserve Funds and Pell Grants are some sources that states report using.
Policies aimed at supporting workers are helping states boost their workforce. States often target specific populations, such as youth in CTE programs or individuals with disabilities.

Building AI Resilient CTE Pipelines

As AI technologies rapidly evolve, there is a clear need for the CTE community to better understand how AI will impact the world of work and future career opportunities for students. ACTE is working with the Education Research & Opportunity Center at the University of Tennessee Knoxville, along with Advance CTE and the Tennessee Board of Regents, on a project to better understand how developments in AI have the potential to impact CTE programs, particularly at the postsecondary level, and help CTE leaders respond to these developments. The project is funded by the ECMC Foundation.

The first phase of the project involves a landscape scan to identify how AI is impacting various careers. The first report was recently released, Fostering AI-Ready Building & Moving CTE Pipelines: Implications for Policy, Practice & Research, and will be followed by reports on each of the other Career Cluster® groupings.

This first report examines how AI is impacting careers in the Supply Chain & Transportation, Advanced Manufacturing, and Construction Clusters. While on the surface, these career areas might seem less prone to changes due to AI advances, there are still significant impacts. Careers in these areas have already begun to see “disruptive applications” of AI, for things like route optimization, warehouse automation, safety enhancement and quality control, on site fabrication, and even routine construction tasks. The report provides in-depth analysis of the occupations in these Clusters and their relative AI exposure, as well as how routine individual tasks are within the occupations. It concludes with recommendations for CTE providers, industry partner and policymakers.

Research Roundup: College and Career Readiness, Work-based Learning, Earnings Growth, Short-term Credentials

School Pulse Panel: The National Center for Education Statistics recently released college and career readiness data from its School Pulse Panel. Among grade 9-12 public schools in the 2024-25 school year:

Eighty-four percent align graduation requirements with public postsecondary admissions requirements.
- Sixty-three percent include college and career milestones alongside graduation requirements.
Sixty-five percent offer dual enrollment courses.
- On average, schools offer seven dual enrollment courses.
- Seventeen percent of students are enrolled in dual enrollment courses.
Seventy-nine percent offer CTE programs to students.
- This is a decrease from 86% for the 2023-24 school year.

Measuring Earnings Growth by Field of Study: A report by the Urban Institute analyzed earnings up to five years after graduates finish their programs. The researchers focused on two subsets of credentials: those with low initial earnings but high earnings growth in the fifth year, and those with low initial earnings and low earnings growth in the fifth year.

The researchers found that on average, certificate and associate degree holders see an increase of $11,000 in their earnings five years after program completion. Programs above that threshold include biological and physical sciences, electrical and power transmission, criminal justice and corrections, design and radio/TV/digital communications, as well as some health care programs. On the opposite end, fields of studies that see the smallest increase in earnings include medical assisting and cosmetology.

The researchers also note that quality assurance policies that only measure the first year of earnings after program completion may hinder programs that take time for earnings to increase. Thus, policymakers should carefully consider how to implement quality assurance policies for specific degree pathways.

Promise and Progress in High School Work-based Learning: A report by American Student Assistance and Bellwether examined work-based learning initiatives in 10 different states, studying how each state has approached strengthening their programs since a 2021 report that analyzed work-based learning policies nationwide.

The researchers found that the states studied have expanded work-based learning opportunities for underserved students, strengthened collaboration between state agencies, and evaluated programs to identify areas that need improvement. However, states have also struggled significantly with transportation in rural areas, hiring additional staff to support students and businesses, expanding business partnerships, and building high-quality data infrastructure.

The report also dives into the 10 state’s various initiatives. For example, Louisiana included work-based learning as part of its school accountability ratings, education and workforce agencies in North Carolina are scaling apprenticeship opportunities, and the Blueprint for Maryland’s Future has ignited a series of work-based learning initiatives in the state.

Examining Short-term Credentials and Student Outcomes in Indiana: A study conducted by the RAND Corporation examines the short-term credential landscape in Indiana, mainly which for-credit certificates are being earned and by whom, the stacking of credentials and earnings outcomes.

The researchers made several key findings:

Certificates earned grew from 3,888 in 2010 to over 25,000 in 2021. High school students contributed considerably to this growth.
- The racial/ethnic composition of credential holders is similar to the state’s composition of high school graduates.
Most certificate holders (70%) stacked credentials within three years of earning their initial certificate.
- Most certificate holders who stacked credentials earned a degree.
- Women and Black certificate holders were less likely to stack.
Certificate holders earned 20% more in quarterly earnings on average – about $4,700 more per year.
- Health care and long-term certificates had the largest gains.

DC Digest: March 8-14

This was a chaotic week in Washington, D.C., marked by huge staff reductions at the Department of Education and a showdown over government funding for Fiscal Year (FY) 2025. Ultimately, Congress cleared a continuing resolution to continue federal funding for the rest of the year at roughly current levels, averting a government shutdown. Both chambers will now recess until March 24. Keep reading for more details.

Congress Passes CR: The House passed a year-long continuing resolution (CR) to fund the government for FY 2025 through September on March 11 and the Senate followed on March 14, just before current government funding would have expired triggering a shut down. The CR provides roughly level funding for most programs, but does contain some cuts and other anomalies. As the CR is signed into law and official allocations for individual programs are released, we will provide updates.
ACTE and Advance CTE Issue Statement on Department of Education Funding & Staffing Impacts on CTE: ACTE and Advance CTE released a statement regarding the recent staffing and funding actions of the U.S. Department of Education and their impacts on the CTE community. Read the statement here.
Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP) Leads Coalition in Letter to Congress on Postsecondary Data: IHEP led a coalition of 87 organizations and individual researchers in sending a letter to Congress elevating deep concerns regarding recent Institute of Education Sciences (IES) research and data collection cancellations. ACTE signed on to this letter.
Senate Confirms Secretary of Labor Lori Chavez-DeRemer: The Senate voted to confirm Lori Chavez-DeRemer as Secretary of Labor earlier this week. She was sworn in shortly after the vote.
House Holds Hearing on School Choice: The Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education Subcommittee held a hearing on school choice. During opening statements, Rep. Suzanne Bonamici, House CTE Caucus co-chair, highlighted CTE schools in her district as strong and viable educational opportunities.
Committee for Education Funding (CEF) Briefing: CEF, a large education coalition of which ACTE is a member, held a briefing on Capitol Hill, “The Value and Importance of Federal Investments in Education.” The panel featured Richard Kincaid, Sr. Executive Director of College and Career Pathways at Maryland State Department of Education. Kincaid used his time on the panel to highlight the positive outcomes of CTE programs and benefits to enrolling in CTE. Other panelists also pressed the need for stronger federal investments and for research and data.

New Resource: Special Populations Strategies

ACTE has published a new resource, Strategies to Support Special Populations in CTE, to provide CTE practitioners with access to strategies, tips and examples to support students in special population groups as designated by Perkins V, including students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged learners, foster youth and more.

The repository can be filtered by special population group and/or by strategy type:

Articulated and Flexible Learning
Career Exploration and Planning
Collaboration
Data
Instructional Supports
Wraparound Supports

In addition, ACTE offers resources through our other regularly updated repositories, such as our High-quality CTE Library and Teach CTE Repository.

Please share this repository with your fellow CTE educators to help them locate resources to better serve students from special populations groups. For any questions, comments or concerns, you can contact Jesus Galvan, ACTE’s Research and Policy Coordinator, at jgalvan@acteonline.org.

Research Roundup: Credentials of Value, Transfer Data, High School Pathways Maps

Before jumping into our regular roundup of research and data resources relevant to CTE, ACTE would like to share our concern about the recent U.S. Department of Education cancellation of research contracts as well as the reduction in force that appears to essentially eliminate all functions at the Institute of Education Sciences and National Center for Education Statistics, halting critical research and data collection. Read more in our joint statement with Advance CTE.

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Credentials of Value: The Lumina Foundation recently launched a new national goal they aim to achieve: By 2040, 75% of adults in America will have a credential of value that leads to economic prosperity. Lumina defines a credential of value as a post-high school credential that leads to a career paying 15% more than the national median salary for a high school graduate.

As part of this new goal, Lumina published a data dashboard monitoring the progress of the nation and states in reaching the 75% threshold. As of 2023, 44.1% of adults aged 25-64 in the workforce have a credential of value, including bachelor’s degrees (18%), graduate degrees (13.2%), short-term credentials (7.7%) and associate degrees (5.2%). States and territories have varying percentages of adults with a credential of value, ranging from 22.5% in Puerto Rico’s to 70.4% in Washington, DC.

The findings, which can be disaggregated by age as well as by race/ethnicity, highlight the benefits of adults earning a post-high school credential while also underscoring disparities.

Transfer Enrollment and Pathways: The National Student Clearinghouse recently released data on transfer enrollment for the fall 2024 semester:

Returning transfer students made up the majority of transfer enrollment (52%), driven by higher growth rates among those transferring after temporarily exiting postsecondary education.
Although community college enrollment is still below pre-pandemic levels, this sector has gained the most transfer enrollment since fall 2020 (+13.5%).
Students from two-year schools with a high vocational focus made up a larger share of two-to-four-year transfers in fall 2024 than the year prior (+6.5%).
Two-thirds of transfer students changed their major.
Increasing numbers of students transferred into business and health majors compared to fall 2023 (+5.8% and +12.6%, respectively).
Black (+8.3%) and Hispanic (+4.4%) students saw the largest increase in transfers since fall 2023; white students were the only racial/ethnic group with decreasing transfer rates (-1.3%).

Beyond Transfer: Insights from a Survey of American Adults: Public Agenda has released the results of a survey they conducted to better understand Americans’ experiences with transferring postsecondary credits between schools and their perceptions of obstacles toward earning a degree. The survey was completed by 3,077 adult Americans across the country.

The survey yielded several important findings:

A quarter of respondents who attempted to transfer credits report that they were able to transfer only a few or none of their credits.
Thirty-seven percent of respondents reported the credit transfer process to be difficult.
Twenty percent of respondents had to retake a course they had already completed.
A higher percentage of white respondents compared to Black or Latino respondents say they successfully transferred all or most of their credits, and more white respondents found the transfer process easy than students from other racial/ethnic groups.

Mapping a Path from High School to Success: A report by Education Strategy Group examines various nursing, cybersecurity and mechatronics pathways to identify trends and best practices.

Across all three pathways, researchers found that most maps included clear outcomes and stackable credentials. The pathway maps also rely heavily on local contexts, such as taking transportation into consideration. Messaging varied from easily understandable maps to complex maps that were confusing. Finally, the researchers noted potential implications for accessibility as some maps impose GPA restrictions, age cut-offs and other requirements that may hinder a student’s access to a pathway.

The researchers also shared findings and recommendations by pathway:

Nursing: Most course maps follow very similar course sequences even while considering local contexts, meaning that programs may be able to build off other programs’ maps.
Cybersecurity: Researchers found that the maps were often narrowly focused on obtaining credentials in cybersecurity, not branching out into how cybersecurity can be paired with other IT-related career paths.
Mechatronics: Maps should explain in plain language what mechatronics is, how it differs from past manufacturing jobs, and what careers it can lead to today.